The Evolution of Cultural Modernity (ECM)

The Hohle Fels is one of the most important sites documenting the Middle and Upper Paleolithic sequence in the Swabian Jura due to their complex stratigraphy, the presence of a rich collection of stone artifacts, and unique finds of Upper Paleolithic-like figurative art and musical instruments. Although the site is widely known from the time of the Upper Paleolithic connected to the Homo sapiens settlement and it was covered in many publications, not a lot is known and studied about previous residents of this cave  - the Neanderthals.

In 2020 in Hohle Fels Cave in  GH 13/AH X, one leaf point was found made from Jurassic chert from the Swabian region. The layer predates 62.5 ka BP and lies ca. 1.2 meters beneath the base of the Aurignacian. This find contradicts the interpretation that leaf points invariably correspond to the end of the Middle Paleolithic/ or the transition and supports the hypothesis that Blattspitzen are not reliable cultural and chronostratigraphic markers of the Upper Paleolithic. My Ph.D. project will research the Neanderthal occupation in the Hohle Fels connected with the occurrence of Blattspitzen through techno-typological studies of lithic material. The present project seeks to create a data set of lithic reduction sequences and raw material economies so this will provide the opportunity for testing and refining results obtained from other Middle Paleolithic sites especially ones linked with the occurrence of leaf points implemets in  Central Europe.

In recent decades the Still Bay (SB) techno-complex of the Middle Stone Age (MSA) has often been regarded as an exceptionally innovative period. The tireless focus on SB points has overemphasized the homogeneity but masked the complexity and diversity within the SB techno-complex. This emphasis on a singular artifact type has resulted in the oversight of other lithic artifacts, misrepresenting the complete reduction sequence and technological diversity in these assemblages.

Sibhudu Cave in KwaZulu-Natal contains one of the longest MSA sequences in southern Africa. After numerous, highly successful seasons of excavation by Lyn Wadley of the University of the Witwatersrand, the Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology of the University of Tübingen under Conard’s direction, has conducted yearly field seasons at the site since 2011. Sibhudu preserves rich SB assemblages with high, spatial-temporal resolution within a well-established cultural sequence. The site thus provides a unique opportunity to investigate the diversity and regional variation of the SB. This research project, focusing on techno-economic and techno-functional analyses of the SB assemblages from layers Winnie, Walter, Viola and Victor, aims to assess diachronic change in technology and site-use. By reconstructing the overall characteristics of the SB at Sibhudu, we intend to discuss the properties of SB assemblages to establish the degree of variability within this cultural taxonomic. This research will provide fresh insights into behavioral complexity and cultural evolution during the MSA of southern Africa.

The Zagros Mountains is located in a strategic position, near the junction of Africa, Europe and West Asia, which most likely represented a natural crossroad used by archaic and modern humans. Since 2006, the Tübingen-Iranian Stone Age Research Project (TISARP) carried out several archaeological surveys and excavations, which a special focus on Ghar-e Boof and Chogha Golan (Iran). The Late Pleistocene archaeological record of Ghar-e Boof spans from the Middle Paleolithic until the Late Epipaleolithic, while Chogha Golan is an Aceramic Neolithic than ranges in time more than 2000 years. The archaeological research in Ghar-e Boof has offered new valuable information that highlights the cultural diversity in the Zagros during the Early Upper Paleolithic with the identification and definition of the Rostamian cultural group. Moreover, the analysis of the botanical remains from Chogha Golan has provided the earliest evidence of long-term plant management in Iran. However, very little is known regarding the role of animals in the Paleolithic and Neolithic economies of these two sites.

Thus, the current research project will focus on the zooarchaeological analyses of the faunal remains recovered by the TISARP Team to reconstruct human subsistence strategies during the Late Pleistocene-Holocene in the southern Zagros Mountains. The primary aim of this research is to understand the long-term implications of population growth and changes in residential mobility on the development of animal husbandry practices. To do so, diachronic shifts in species representation and site occupation intensity will be explored within the paradigm of evolutionary ecology in order to assess behavioral continuity and discontinuity through the Middle Paleolithic till the early Neolithic.

Fire has always been considered a crucial factor in the human evolution and its discovery and control have yielded significant changes in the cultural, behavioral and technological sphere. However, the individuation of combustion tracks is not simple and, given the ambiguous and labile nature of the fireplace, it becomes more complex inside the Paleolithic sites; especially when it must connect the combustion tracks to the human activities. This issue often leads archaeologists to consider the burnt material as indirect evidence of combustion features within sites. Nevertheless, the presence of heat-altered remains is not enough to confirm the use of fire by the human and researchers must exploit other investigative techniques. The goal of this project is to use microcontextual analysis to reconstruct the behavioral strategies adopted and the use of space by prehistoric populations from the Middle to Upper Paleolithic. This will be carried out through a diachronic study of the combustion features from Hohle Fels (GER) and Fumane Cave (IT). Currently, analytical techniques have not been intensively used in Fumane Cave and a deeper investigation would be helpful to clarify the occupational pattern inside the cave. On the other hand, further research on samples from Hohle Fels and the comparison with Fumane Cave will allow us to reconstruct how Neanderthals and Modern humans organized their living space and how they controlled fire in a transitional period in two key regions of Europe.

Research on microliths was for a long time mainly associated with the Late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Europe and the Near East. Over the past three decades it became obvious that microlithic technologies have been developed in various areas all over the world. Sometimes there appear to be two or even more techno-complexes that carry microliths in the same area, but at different times. One of these regions is South Africa where we can find microlithic technology during the Howiesons Poort (or even earlier), but evidence for microliths in later MSA seems to be scarce before they reappear in the Later Stone Age Robberg complex. Based on the literature the (re-)appearances of microlithic technologies at different times seem to be a phenomenon of convergent evolution. In the case of South Africa this is a highly problematic conclusion, because especially the later MSA and the MSA/LSA transition are not very well defined in terms of lithic technology and typology – even more so when it comes to the microlithic components within the technological systems. With the rich sequences of Umbeli Belli Rockshelter and Sibudu Cave (both KwaZulu-Natal), where the former comprises layers from both the LSA and MSA and the latter forming one of the most detailed stratigraphy for the MSA after the Howiesons Poort, my projects focuses on microlithic artefacts from both sites, in order to answer the question whether or not microlithic technology in the MSA and LSA of eastern South Africa is a convergent phenomenon. My thesis will use a detailed lithic analysis approach of microliths from MSA and LSA layers of Umbeli Belli and Sibudu. It aims to contribute to a better understanding and definition of the changes within the lithic technological systems of post-Howiesons Poort MSA and MSA/LSA transition and the underlying cultural mechanisms of these changes.

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) of Southern Africa, a period roughly dating to between 300.000 and 30.000 years BP, has received intensive research within the last century and especially since the mid-1980s when scientists recognized that the origins of anatomically modern humans (AMH) reach back into the beginnings of the MSA. While in Asia, Australia, Europe and the new world AMH’s presence is documented the first time between 100.000 and 15.000 years before present (BP) the oldest evidence from Africa dates back to 300.000 BP. Within this period several innovations emerged such as personal ornaments, symbolism, burials and advanced techniques of stone tool production, most of them later than100.000 BP. Since stone artifacts are the most commonly preserved archaeological remains, the understanding of lithic technology and its variability throughout time and space represents the essential tool of stone age archaeology and allows the reconstruction of past human societies behavior in a broad spectrum of aspects including mobility patterns, adaption to different internal and external circumstances and cultural change. In the last decades a growing number of innovations associated with the term “cultural modernity” mentioned above was recovered from two distinct techno-complexes respectively the Still Bay (SB) and Howiesons Poort (HP). This and a high density of well-preserved archaeological sites on the west and south coast of South Africa led to a limited approach to the MSA both regionally and temporally. Consequently, other time periods such as post Howiesons Poort (post HP), late MSA or final MSA associated with the Marine Isotope Stage3 (MIS3) have received substantially less attention and the archaeological region of eastern South Africa, especially KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) remained understudied. In sum, five archaeological sites containing MSA occupations are present in KZN. However, Sibudu remained a hallmark in the region for many years due to its extraordinarily good conditions of preservation and deep stratigraphic sequence. Umhlatuzana and Border Cave have received comparatively little attention and the remaining two sites Holley Shelter and Umbeli Belli have either been analyzed insufficiently or even completely forgotten. Thus, this thesis aims to provide solid archaeological data for the MIS3 assemblages from Holley Shelter, Umbeli Belli and Sibudu. It shall further outline the degree of cultural variability and flexibility within this time period. The results rest on reinvestigations of previously excavated museum collections such as the material from Holley Shelter but also on new data recovered from recent excavations using modern techniques of documentation and analytical procedures.

Day of Defense: 18.10.2017

The Early Upper Paleolithic marks a turning point in the history of human evolution. The cultural modifications that are observable in the European archaeological record are linked to a complex interaction of behavioral, environmental, and biological components that lead to the definitive colonization of Europe by modern humans, and the extinction and/or assimilation of autochthonous Neanderthal populations. Among the techno-complexes that characterize this period, the Aurignacian has received most of the attention because its development marks the consolidation of a set of cultural traits, such as long-distance mobility patterns, production of standardized lithic implements, variate organic artifacts, figurative arts, and personal ornaments made from a wide range of raw materials. However, research conducted in the last few decades has clearly shown that this portrait is more complex than previously thought. The Aurignacian itself, which is frequently described as the first pan-European techno-complex, is characterized by an important synchronic and diachronic variability that has probably been underestimated because of its direct association with the spread of modern humans into Europe. In this framework, regional studies and accurate re-evaluation of pivotal sites are fundamental in deconstructing the notion of the Aurignacian and achieving a better resolution of information for prehistoric times. The study of lithic industries remains the principle method of investigation for this period, although the growing field of archaeological sciences is enlarging the tools available to scientists to better interpret a distant world that will never be uncovered in all of its facets and details. Stone tools are thus the main focus of this thesis, although attention is also placed on other artifacts, such as ornamental objects and bone and antler tools, and in the stratigraphic reliability of the findings. Stone artifact assemblages recovered from five Early Upper Paleolithic cultural units at the site of Fumane Cave (Veneto, Italy) represent the main empirical basis of this doctoral thesis. Furthermore, the results are complemented by the analysis of two additional sites, Isturitz (Basque Country, France) and Les Cottés (Vienne, France), and by a systematic review of all sites containing early evidence of Aurignacian occupation. The study of lithic assemblages follows a holistic approach that aims to integrate and combine methods belonging to different research traditions, such as reduction sequence and attribute analysis. The main research questions of this thesis can be divided into two main topics that have been addressed in separate research projects, and are here combined to test the validity of the available reconstructions for the beginning and development of the Aurignacian. The first goal was to reassess the technological definition of the Protoaurignacian starting from an extensive analysis of the lithic assemblages recovered in units A2–A1 from Fumane Cave and further investigate the variability of the techno-complex across its geographic extent. Once the concept of the Protoaurignacian had been carefully revised, the second research phase aimed to describe the development of the Aurignacian in northern Italy by analyzing the whole Aurignacian sequence of Fumane Cave. The outcomes of this assessment were compared to the so-called “Aquitaine Model”, formulated in southwestern France, to test its applicability to the whole European extent. The first major topic evaluates the reliability of the common definition of Protoaurignacian technology. Results of the empirical investigation and the inter-site comparison confirm that the Protoaurignacian is an industry dominated by bladelet implements, although bladelet production is based on a broad range of reduction strategies that are not related to the dwindling core dimensions as blade production progressed. The dissociation of blade and bladelet productions is thus not only restricted to Early Aurignacian assemblages. Although rather homogeneous from a technological standpoint, the variability of retouched bladelets emphasizes the differences that exist between the Protoaurignacian regional groups. They are expected and, prior to drawing any conclusion, they need to be better evaluated in concert with data obtained from multi-disciplinary studies. The findings of the second research project reject the recurring practice, well-established among Paleolithic archaeologists, to transfer a regional model to geographically distant case studies. At Fumane Cave, the techno-typological features of the Protoaurignacian clearly persists throughout the stratigraphic sequence with some gradual variations that are, however, less distinct if compared to other sequences. Thus, both the “Aquitaine Model” and the idea according to which the Protoaurignacian vanished at the onset of the Heinrich 4 event are invalidated when applied to northern Italy.

In conclusion, this thesis represents an important step towards a more dynamic understanding of the Aurignacian. The re-evaluation of pivotal sites and the definition of particular regional signatures are yielding new insights into the beginning and development of the Upper Paleolithic. The huge amount of work that needs to be done rests on the willingness of archaeologists to test the validity of the reconstructions proposed so far, starting from accurate reassessments of the available data and the identification of potential sites to be investigated following a holistic approach that the unstoppable development of the technium (intended as an interconnected system of technology vibrating around us: Kelly 2010) is more than ever demanding.

Day of Defense: 19.12.2018

Over the last decades, the Middle Stone Age (MSA) has been heralded as a key period of the evolution of modern humans. Yet the nature of early innovations requires further clarification. The exploration of regional sequences and the extension of the research focus from purportedly precocious phases, Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, to the whole of the MSA are essential to expand our knowledge. The site of Sibudu Cave, South Africa, comprises a long and well-dated MSA sequence. Ongoing excavations by the University of Tübingen have yielded MIS 5 assemblages that contribute to the discussion about the driving mechanisms as well as appearance of technological novelties and the cultural variability in the MSA during this period. Following the chaîne opératoire approach, I carried out a technological analysis of the artefacts from layers C-A at Sibudu. The tool corpus stands out because of bifacial technology, but the largest part consists of a variety of unifacially pointed forms. The artisans developed a particular reduction strategy to obtain laminar products, involving cores with a lateral crest opposite the so-called lateral plane forming a triangular asymmetric volume for exploitation. Diagnostic features, including serrated pieces and the laminar reduction system, distinguish the C-A layers. Comparisons with other MIS 5 sites illustrate differences in tool types and organisation of the reduction sequence. However, past populations across different regions aimed at a similar technological goal: blades, thus organising themselves over distances with complex systems of connectedness. In conclusion, the C-A strata belong to a regional adaptation in KwaZulu-Natal attesting the rise of technological inventions and cultural developments within the MSA in MIS 5.

Day of Defense: 17.06.2019

The University of Tübingen has a century old tradition of archaeological research on the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic sites of the Swabian Jura, in Southwestern Germany. Over the past decades extensive research has revolved around the rich archaeological record of the Ach and Lone valleys. However, the role played by other sites located along the river valleys that crossed the Danube, especially those in the southwestern part of the Swabian Jura, remains poorly understood and much of the archaeological work relative to this area is limited to pioneering excavations that were carried out during the first half of the 20th century.

In this framework, we decided to resume research at the rock shelter site of Schafstall in the Lauchert Valley along the Upper Danube. The site consists of two contiguous areas, named Schafstall I and Schafstall II, which were excavated in the 1940s by Eduard Peters yielding Middle Palaeolithic and Aurignacian artefacts. Unfortunately, all the excavation documentation as well as part of the finds went missing during the Second World War, but a recent study on the surviving lithic remains from Schafstall II highlighted the presence of Aurignacian tools possibly associated with human remains. Our goal was to review the magnitude of the archaeological record and to assess the extent and intensity of occupation and the types of activities carried out by hominids during the Middle and Upper Paleolithic in this part of Swabia.

The results of the zooarchaeological study on the large faunal remains from the old excavations reveal clear differences in faunal composition and in bone damage patterns between Schafstall I and II that reflect distinct activities in the two areas of the site. Stone tool technology and radiocarbon determinations indicate a strong Middle Palaeolithic signature for the archaeological assemblage of Schafstall I which contrasts with the dominant Aurignacian component of the assemblage from Schafstall II.

This study also highlights apparent inconsistencies in the archaeological data between the old and new excavations of Schafstall II that may be explained by the preferential use made by hominids of the area of the site closer to the rock face and by the varying level of exposure of the different site areas to the action of geological and post-depositional processes.

Day of Defense: 24.07.2020

The Swabian Jura is well-known as an important region for the study of Paleolithic archaeology. The Magdalenian, though, has received little attention in this region compared to other periods of the Paleolithic. Open questions, therefore, remain regarding regional subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, and environmental conditions during this time. There have been, for example, almost no modern, quantitative studies of environmental conditions during the Magdalenian that are specific to the Swabian Jura. In this dissertation, I use remains from Langmahdhalde, a rock shelter in the Lone Valley that is one of the first archaeological sites in the Swabian Jura with intact Magdalenian remains to have been discovered in decades. I use the faunal remains from the site to explore trends in human subsistence behavior, use of the rock shelter, local environmental conditions, and the resettlement of the Swabian Jura during the Late Glacial. To do so, I take four methodological approaches. First, I use traditional zooarchaeological analysis to understand human behavior. Second, I conduct stable isotope analyses on bone collagen of horse (Equus ferus) and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) from the site. Third, I apply a model for reconstructing past environments, called the Bioclimatic Analysis (Hernández Fernández, 2001a, 2001b; Hernández Fernández and Peláez-Campomanes, 2005, 2003), to the microfaunal assemblage. Finally, I do a taphonomic analysis of the microfaunal assemblage. My results regarding human behavior during the Magdalenian in the Swabian Jura are consistent with current understandings of the Central European Magdalenian. The primary taxa at the site are hare (genus Lepus), small carnivores, reindeer, horse, and medium birds. There is evidence of butchery, marrow extraction, antler working, skinning, and needle making at the site. The results of the stable isotope analyses show that Late Glacial horses were more adaptable to local environments than reindeer and that their d13Ccoll and d15Ncoll values are better indicators of local environments than those of reindeer. Further, I document evidence of the loss of the preferred habitat of reindeer in the region. The Bioclimatic Analysis demonstrates that Late Glacial environments surrounding Langmahdhalde were generally open tundra but with more precipitation, warmer and shorter winters, and longer vegetative activity periods than modern tundra environments. The models also suggest that the landscape was mosaic in nature and likely even had stands of trees, indicating that the region was more heterogeneous than previously thought. This heterogeneity probably means that there was a higher diversity of plant and animal species on the landscape than in modern tundra regions. Finally, my taphonomic analysis of the microfauna indicates that in the majority of the horizons at Langmahdhalde, several predators, mostly species of owl, deposited the microfaunal remains. These predators include both opportunistic feeders and specialists who prefer specific prey. The microfaunal assemblage can, therefore, most accurately provide reconstructions of paleoenvironments when the presence or absence of taxa, not taxonomic abundance, is used in analyses. As the Bioclimatic Analysis uses presence/absence data, this suggests that the paleoenvironmental interpretations from the site are robust. Further, the hunting ranges of the predators responsible for the assemblage suggest that my paleoenvironmental interpretations apply to the Lone Valley and its surroundings. I end by arguing that the Swabian Jura (at least the Lone Valley) offered Magdalenian hunter-gatherers a greater diversity of resources than other regions, even those to the west, during this time. It is possible that this is one of the reasons that the resettlement of the Swabian Jura during the Late Glacial was successful.

Day of defense: 12.06.2020